The process of carcinogenesis typically involves multiple stages: initiation, promotion, and progression. During the initiation stage, chemicals known as carcinogens can induce genetic mutations by damaging DNA. These mutations, if not repaired, can lead to malignant transformations. Promotion involves the clonal expansion of these initiated cells, often driven by non-genotoxic chemicals that do not directly cause DNA damage but can enhance the effects of genetic mutations. Progression is the stage where cells acquire further genetic changes, leading to invasive cancer.
