Cardiotoxicity can be assessed using various in vitro and in vivo models. In vitro models often involve the use of primary cardiac cells or stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes, while in vivo models may include animal studies. Biomarkers such as troponins, natriuretic peptides, and electrocardiograms (ECGs) are commonly used to evaluate cardiac function and detect early signs of toxicity. Advanced techniques like imaging and molecular assays also provide insights into the mechanisms of toxicity.
