Metabolism is studied using a combination of in vitro and in vivo techniques. In vitro systems, such as liver microsomes and hepatocytes, allow for the assessment of enzyme activity, pathway elucidation, and metabolite identification. In vivo studies in animal models or humans provide insights into the systemic effects of metabolites and their pharmacokinetics. Advances in analytical techniques, such as mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance, have enhanced the ability to identify and quantify metabolites.
