Various toxins can disrupt ER function by interfering with protein folding, calcium homeostasis, or lipid metabolism. For instance, heavy metals like mercury and cadmium can induce ER stress by altering calcium levels. Environmental toxins such as dioxins can affect lipid metabolism, leading to lipid accumulation and subsequent ER stress. Drug-induced toxicity, particularly from pharmaceuticals like acetaminophen, can also result in ER stress, contributing to liver damage.
