The nucleus, which houses the cell's genetic material, is another critical target for toxicants. Damage to DNA can occur via direct interaction with toxicants or indirectly through oxidative stress. This can result in mutations, genomic instability, and potentially cancer. Many carcinogens, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and certain heavy metals, exert their effects through DNA damage. Additionally, the disruption of nuclear envelope integrity can lead to the mislocalization of nuclear and cytoplasmic components, further contributing to toxicity.
